School leaders can and do make a difference.

INTRODUCTION

Efforts exerted by the Department of Education are focused primarily on student learning. The system has come far in revolutionizing all existing factors that may play great roles on the performance of the learners. However, evidences and even simple observations inside the classroom will prove that some students are failing academically.  The blame for this lack of student learning could be placed on teachers and their teaching techniques.¹The difficulties teachers face in learning how to teach and in improving their teaching on the job is at the root of the major problems in the preservice and inservice education of teachers.^2,11 Likewise, most teachers lack grounding in relevant teaching theory and become susceptible to fashions and fads in teaching.^3,11Therefore, many teachers are unable to develop an effective system for teaching.

Being the frontliners of the system, teachers are the ones expected to enforce and promote learning. Thus, students’ academic failures are easily placed on the teachers’shoulders. However, the educational system has three major components: teaching, learning and supervision.^3,11

There has to be administration in any organization as long as an organization consists of people brought together in hierarchical set-ups, making use of tools, equipment, human and material resources, all in the quest of attaining the goals for which the organization is established⁴. The school is an organization and in itself a system consists of interdependent parts functioning to achieve a common goal. The administration, which includes the principals, heads, master teachers and supervisors, is the glue which holds all these parts together.

The majority of schools perceived as successful have one thing in common – effective leadership (Saskatchewan School Boards Association). Effective instructional and administrative leadership is required to implement change processes⁵. In the quest to achieve high quality learning outcomes, the school needs firm and proactive people who can lead for such purpose.

Valuing the importance and significant influence of school administrators on the learning process, this paper reviews literatures to discuss the components of supervision. Specifically, the paper: 1.) examines different supervisory approaches used by instructional leaders; and, 2.) gives emphasis on the concept of supervision as a developmental process by Glickman et al.  The paper addresses issues concerning effective supervision by including discussions, findings and recommendations from different studies and articles.

DISCUSSION

Because student learning is the primary function of the schools, the effective supervision of instruction is one of the most critical functions of the administrator⁶. This ground is extolled by Edem (2008), as cited by Okendu (2012), that educational administration focuses on the enhancement of teaching and learning process.

Thesupervisionof teachers is traditionally inspectorial. Supervisors focus their attention on the classroom behavior of individual teachers, hoping that, if only enough teachers improve, the entireschoolsystem will improve⁸. For that matter, school leaders should possess special competencies in school administration and supervision that will enable them to meet the demands of a changing society as they function in the total educational framework.

Selecting an approach is a process which must be carefully carried out and it is one burden that the supervisors carry. Each approach poses a corresponding amount of risk of committing mistakes and an equivalent amount of reward if successful.  Instructional leaders hence have to consider different factors that may affect the effectiveness of supervision in choosing the appropriate supervisory model.

Clinical Supervision. This is one approach of supervision that is commonly used in schools. It is a form of inquiry designed to encourage reflection and analysis of supervisory methods and to develop and test hypotheses about what is effective and why^9,11.

Goldhammer, Anderson, and Krajewski (1993) and Cogan (1973) identified five major steps in clinical supervision: 1) planning conference where the teacher prepares a detailed lesson plan and the instructional leader is informed of the objective of the lesson; 2) classroom observation/data collection, where the instructional leader observes the teacher while teaching the lesson outlined in the lesson plan; 3) analysis/strategy, where the instructional leader conceptualizes what was observed and converts the analysis into readable data; 4) postobservation conference, where the instructional leader sets a dialogue with the teacher on the observed lesson and allows the teacher to give input on the lesson; and 5) postconference analysis where the instructional leader analyzes if the best supervisory practices were used with the teacher and where the leader and the teacher work together to establish goals to be met at the next observation date.

On this approach, the teacher is evaluated and guided by the instructional leader using a systematic step-by-step process. The risk and the reward obtained using this structured approach are both low and is used primarily with the teacher who is new to teaching and needs structure in the supervisory visit and assistance with teaching techniques.¹¹

Conceptual Supervision. This approach also uses the major steps that are used in clinical supervision. However, the teacher’s competence is not solely evaluated and analyzed based on what transpired during the classroom observation but on other existing variables as well. The instructional leader hence should be familiarized with other factors such as the school environment, work load, teacher relationships, administration, personal life, etc. and should have a deep understanding on how these may affect teaching effectiveness. The conceptual approach is supported by the organizational theory which emphasizes that individuals are unified by a common set of ethics and that they work together within a system of structure to accomplish specific goals and objectives.^11,12

Conceptual supervision, like clinical supervision, is an structured and systematic approach hence presents low risk and low reward and is used mostly in guiding beginning teachers.¹¹

Contextual Supervision.On this approach, supervisory style matches with the teacher’s development or readiness level to perform a particular teaching task.¹³Readiness level is determined by the teacher’s confidence and competence. Competence is the extent of the teacher’s knowledge, skill, and ability to perform a certain task while confidence is the degree of self-assurance, willingness, motivation, interest, or enthusiasm to become engaged in the task.^11,13 Contextual supervision requires that the instructional leader has the ability to identify the readiness of the teachers and to match that readiness with the appropriate leadership approach.

Teachers are categorized based on four quadrants: Quadrant I – high confidence, low competence; Quadrant II – low confidence, low competence; Quadrant III – low confidence, high competence; and Quadrant IV – high confidence, high competence. To compensate for the teacher’s low confidence, the instructional leader provides high support (encouragement and motivation) while high task (guidance in subject matter areas) is given for a teacher who has low competence.^11,13

Contextual supervision is a moderately structured supervision and presents both moderately high risk and reward and is recommended for instructional leaders who may be working with teachers who have taught for at least three years, are receiving advanced education, and are comfortable with their teaching abilities.¹¹

Differentiated Supervision. This approach is particularly teacher-driven where the instructional leader becomes more of a mentor to the teacher. Glatthorn (1997) as cited by Fritz (2003) suggests four options for differentiated supervision: 1) intensive development (a special approach to clinical supervision) where multiple classroom observations are required and which focus is on learning outcomes not on teaching methods; 2) cooperative professional development which is a mutually respectful process in which a small group of teachers agree to work together to facilitate their own professional growth; 3) self-directed which is suitedfor a teacher who would like to work independently and self-evaluates his teaching using videotapes,journals or portfolios; and 4) administrative monitoring where the instructional leader monitors the teacher’s classroom with brief, unannounced visits.

This approach is relatively unstructured and thus presents high risk and likewise high reward and would best suit a teacher who has substantial classroom experience, exhibits high levels of leadership and readiness, and has gained professional development in his/her teaching area.¹¹

Developmental Supervision. Glickman et al. (2001) define developmental supervision as “the match of initial supervisory approach with the teacher or group’s developmental levels, expertise, and commitment”. The instructional leader operating in developmental supervision gives three types of assistance: 1) directive, which places instructional leader as the expert in charge of writing goals for the teacher; 2) collaborative, where the instructional leader and teacher establish goals, identify how they will be achieved, and as a team note when the achievement should be noticed, and; 3) nondirective, where the teacher is in control of how and when the goals will be achieved and where the instructional leader is still involved, but takes a more passive role in the supervisory process.

Instructional leadership is to be viewed as a function and process rather than a role or position.¹⁵ It is not a way of controlling teachers but rather a way of guiding them.“Instructional supervision is the function in educational systems that draws together the discrete elements of instructional effectiveness into a whole educational action” (Glickman, Gordon, & Ross-Gordon, 1995).

Leadership, in addition to being situational, should be a developmental process. Figure 1 presents a paradigm shift of supervision from mere inspection of people as subordinates to encouraging collegial interactions.

Prerequisites. It is important to remember that effective supervision necessitates knowledge of adult education and the various types of supervisory approaches that can be used when working with teachers directly so as to positively impact students indirectly.¹⁷Effective supervisors have a wide range of knowledge on different leadership strategies for various teaching and learning environments. Selecting the most effective intervention will always be critical to effective supervision, with specific attention paid to collaborative and non-directive supervisory behaviors.¹⁷

Also, to achieve effective supervision, communication matters. Effective communication needs to be mastered, along with the deployment of empowerment, collegiality, democracy and collaboration.¹⁸ Supervisory positions carry a high level of responsibility that benefits from strong interpersonal skills.¹⁹ Glickman et al. (2005) state that “when supervisors listen to the teacher, clarify what the teacher says, encourage the teacher to speak more of their concern, and reflect by verifying the teachers’ perceptions…the teacher is in control” – a non-directive/collaborative interpersonal approach.¹¹Effective supervisors are good at listening, clarifying, encouraging, reflecting, presenting, problem solving, negotiating, directing and standardizing

The third requirement for effective supervision is technical skills. Instructional leaders are experts in creating and interpreting assessments, evaluations, plans, forecasts, and observations. 

Tasks. Direct assistance is important when one considers that supervision should help teachers participate effectively in maintaining their schools as learning organizations, reinventing schools around learning, not time; fixing current design flaws; establishing a [meaningful] academic day; keeping schools open longer; giving teachers the time they need; investing in technology; …and sharing responsibility.²¹

An effective supervisor recognizes the importance of group development and a harmonious relationship between members. Instructional leaders see to it that teachers work hand in hand together to achieve organizational goals. Conflicts that may arise are immediately resolved whether such action is solicited or not.

The instructional leader is a picture of professional development. He knows the value of reaching for further growth and thus in the process inspires the teachers to aim for more learning and skills training. School administrators nurture an instructional program and school culture conducive to learning and professional growth.⁵ Teachers profit professionally from receiving supervisory assistance supporting this environment, including collaborative supervisory interventions embracing full development of teacher and student potential; opportunity to learn from failure; and provision of praise for activities well done.²⁰

Theschoolheads who are well trained to manage the system contribute immensely in the implementation of the curriculum in secondaryschools.⁷ However, school administrators are not just responsible in implementing the curriculum but they are also part of developing the curriculum. Instructional leaders work with teachers in evaluating the curriculum and report observations and findings to the sector’s curriculum planners.

Effective supervision is a synthesis of leadership practices which promote student learning and are supported by research, learning theory and expert opinion.²²School leaders value the power of action researches and thus encourage and collaborate with teachers in making studies that concern the learner and learning outcomes.

Unification. The ultimate objective of supervision is to unify organizational goals and teachers’ needs. When the instructional leader cannot meet the teacher’s needs, the entire teaching experience may not be as effective as it could have been²³ and an unproductive working relationship may be established.²⁴ To achieve this unity means that the task areas of supervision must be understood by those in supervisory positions. Provision of direct assistance to teachers, group development, professional development, curriculum development, and action research activities are essential to the realization of pedagogical effectiveness.

CONCLUSION

Supervision is a vital part of the teaching- learning process. Its essence cannot be overstressed and its influence on the learning outcomes cannot be undermined. Teachers are the frontliners of the educational system but the instructional leaders are the seldom unseen forces behind teachers.

Various approaches can be used by the supervisor in enforcing teacher development and each holds remarkable promises and presents both risk for mistakes or failures, and reward. Properly selecting which supervisory approach to be used is essential in assuring the effectiveness of supervision.

Among these approaches, developmental supervision has a lot to offer. It is founded on human relations and it encourages a respectful and collaborative relationship between the instructional leader and the teachers as both parties work together to achieve a common goal. It is designed to promote professional, personal and interpersonal development of teachers.

The ultimate goal of developmental supervision is to unify organizational goals and the teachers’ needs which will decisively result to improved student learning. To achieve that objective, the instructional leader should acquire relevant knowledge, interpersonal skills and technical skills to effectively perform tasks and provide for groupdevelopment, professional development, curriculum development, direct assistance and action research activities.